Conservation and developmental expression of ubiquitin isopeptidases in Schistosoma mansoni

Several genes related to the ubiquitin (Ub)-proteasome pathway, including those coding for proteasome subunits and conjugation enzymes, are differentially expressed during the Schistosoma mansoni life cycle. Although deubiquitinating enzymes have been reported to be negative regulators of protein ubiquitination and shown to play an important role in Ub-dependent processes, little is known about their role in S. mansoni . In this study, we analysed the Ub carboxyl-terminal hydrolase (UCHs) proteins found in the database of the parasite’s genome. An in silico ana- lysis (GeneDB and MEROPS) identified three different UCH family members in the genome, Sm UCH-L3, Sm UCH-L5 and Sm BAP-1 and a phylogenetic analysis confirmed the evolutionary conservation of the proteins. We performed quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and observed a differential expression profile for all of the investigated transcripts between the cercariae and adult worm stages. These results were corroborated by low rates of Z-Arg-Leu-Arg-Gly-Gly-AMC hydrolysis in a crude extract obtained from cercariae in parallel with high Ub conjugate levels in the same extracts. We suggest that the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in the cercaria and early schistosomulum stages is related to a decrease in 26S proteasome activity. Taken together, our data suggest that UCH family members contribute to regulating the activity of the Ub-proteasome system during the life cycle of this parasite.

Avaliação da fosfoglicerato mutase de Schistosoma mansoni como potencial antígeno imunoprotetor e identificação de novos alvos para teste de diagnóstico e vacina contra esquistossomose / Phosphoglycerate mutase Evaluation of Schistosoma mansoni as immunoprotective antigen and identification of potential new targets for diagnostic tests and schistosomiasis vaccine

A esquistossomose é uma doença parasitária causada por parasitos do gênero Schistosoma. Apesar das tentativas de controle e introdução do tratamento com praziquantel,a doença persiste. Desse modo, o desenvolvimento de uma vacina poderá contribuir para o controle da doença. Dentre outras evidências, o alto nível de proteção alcançado pela vacinação com cercárias irradiadas em camundongos e a presença de indivíduos naturalmente resistentes à infecção por Schistosoma mansoni em áreas endêmicas sugerem a existência de mecanismos que induzem proteção contra esquistossomose. Por meio de experimentos de Western-blotting bidimensional utilizando soro de indivíduos de área endêmica para esquistossomose e extrato proteico de vermes adultos, selecionamos a proteína fosfoglicerato mutase de S. mansoni (SmPGM) para ser testada em ensaios de imunização em camundongos,uma vez que spots correspondentes a esta proteína foram reconhecidos pelo soro de indivíduos naturalmente resistentes à infecção e também porque análises in silico do seu potencial antigênico indicaram que SmPGM é uma das proteínas de S. mansoni que mais possuem peptídeos antigênicos. A região codificadora do gene foi inserida em vetor de expressão em células de mamíferos e após certificar a expressão da proteína por Western-blotting usando anticorpo anti-His (C-term) e extrato proteico de células HEK 293T transfectadas, outra construção de DNA similar, que não expressa a proteína em fusão com 6xHis, foi usada nos ensaios de imunização gênica em camundongos...

Entretanto, não houve redução no número de vermes adultos recuperados de camundongos vacinados e desafiados,bem como no número de ovos liberados nas fezes e retidos no fígado e intestino. Além disso,não houve alteração na ovoposição das fêmeas, nem no número e tamanho dos granulomas. A imunização gênica não foi capaz de induzir resposta humoral, resposta imune celular e produção de citocinas. Sendo assim, foram realizados experimentos de imunização de camundongos com dois peptídeos sintéticos de SmPGM, que também não resultou em proteção pelos parâmetros analisados. Este projeto também teve como objetivo identificar proteínas de membrana, principalmente do tegumento do parasito. Para isso, um extrato proteico de vermes adultos de S. mansoni enriquecido com proteínas de membrana foi obtido e também utilizado em experimentos de Western-blotting bidimensional. Foram detectados spots proteicos que reagiram diferencialmente aos pools de soro de indivíduos de área endêmica para esquistossomose. Entretanto, todos os spots imunorreativos foram submetidos à identificação por espectrometria de massas...

Avaliação da fosfoglicerato mutase de Schistosoma mansoni como potencial antígeno imunoprotetor e identificação de novos alvos para teste de diagnóstico e vacina contra esquistossomose

A esquistossomose é uma doença parasitária causada por parasitos do gênero Schistosoma. Apesar das tentativas de controle e introdução do tratamento com praziquantel,a doença persiste. Desse modo, o desenvolvimento de uma vacina poderá contribuir para o controle da doença. Dentre outras evidências, o alto nível de proteção alcançado pela vacinação com cercárias irradiadas em camundongos e a presença de indivíduos naturalmente resistentes à infecção por Schistosoma mansoni em áreas endêmicas sugerem a existência de mecanismos que induzem proteção contra esquistossomose. Por meio de experimentos de Western-blotting bidimensional utilizando soro de indivíduos de área endêmica para esquistossomose e extrato proteico de vermes adultos, selecionamos a proteína fosfoglicerato mutase de S. mansoni (SmPGM) para ser testada em ensaios de imunização em camundongos,uma vez que spots correspondentes a esta proteína foram reconhecidos pelo soro de indivíduos naturalmente resistentes à infecção e também porque análises in silico do seu potencial antigênico indicaram que SmPGM é uma das proteínas de S. mansoni que mais possuem peptídeos antigênicos. A região codificadora do gene foi inserida em vetor de expressão em células de mamíferos e após certificar a expressão da proteína por Western-blotting usando anticorpo anti-His (C-term) e extrato proteico de células HEK 293T transfectadas, outra construção de DNA similar, que não expressa a proteína em fusão com 6xHis, foi usada nos ensaios de imunização gênica em camundongos.

Entretanto, não houve redução no número de vermes adultos recuperados de camundongos vacinados e desafiados,bem como no número de ovos liberados nas fezes e retidos no fígado e intestino. Além disso,não houve alteração na ovoposição das fêmeas, nem no número e tamanho dos granulomas. A imunização gênica não foi capaz de induzir resposta humoral, resposta imune celular e produção de citocinas. Sendo assim, foram realizados experimentos de imunização de camundongos com dois peptídeos sintéticos de SmPGM, que também não resultou em proteção pelos parâmetros analisados. Este projeto também teve como objetivo identificar proteínas de membrana, principalmente do tegumento do parasito. Para isso, um extrato proteico de vermes adultos de S. mansoni enriquecido com proteínas de membrana foi obtido e também utilizado em experimentos de Western-blotting bidimensional. Foram detectados spots proteicos que reagiram diferencialmente aos pools de soro de indivíduos de área endêmica para esquistossomose. Entretanto, todos os spots imunorreativos foram submetidos à identificação por espectrometria de massas.

Protective and Anti-Pathology Effects of Sm Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate Aldolase-Based DNA Vaccine against Schistosoma mansoni by Changing Route of Injection

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of fructose-1,6-bis phosphate aldolase (SMALDO) DNA vaccination against Schistosoma mansoni infection using different routes of injection. The SMALDO has been cloned into the eukaryotic expression vector pcDNA3.1/V5-His TOPO-TA and was used in injecting Swiss albino mice intramuscularly (IM), subcutaneously (SC), or intraperitoneally (IP) (50 microg/mouse). Mice vaccinated with non-recombinant pcDNA3.1 served as controls. Each group was immunized 4 times at weeks 0, 2, 4, and 6. Two weeks after the last booster dose, all mice groups were infected with 80 S. mansoni cercariae via tail immersion. At week 8 post-infection, animals were sacrificed for assessment of parasitological and histopathological parameters. High anti-SMALDO IgG antibody titers were detected in sera of all vaccinated groups (P<0.01) compared to the control group. Both the IP and SC vaccination routes resulted in a significant reduction in worm burden (46.2% and 28.9%, respectively, P<0.01). This was accompanied by a significant reduction in hepatic and intestinal egg counts (41.7% and 40.2%, respectively, P<0.01) in the IP group only. The number of dead eggs was significantly increased in both IP and IM groups (P<0.01). IP vaccination recorded the highest significant reduction in granuloma number and diameter (54.7% and 29.2%, respectively, P<0.01) and significant increase in dead miracidia (P<0.01). In conclusion, changing the injection route of SMALDO DNA vaccination significantly influenced the efficacy of vaccination. SMALDO DNA vaccination via IP route could be a promising protective and anti-pathology vaccine candidate against S. mansoni infection.

Immunostimulatory property of a synthetic peptide belonging to the soluble ATP diphosphohydro-lase isoform (SmATPDase 2) and immunolocalisation of this protein in the Schistosoma mansoni egg

A peptide (SmB2LJ; r175-194) that belongs to a conserved domain from Schistosoma mansoni SmATPDase 2 and is shared with potato apyrase, as predicted by in silico analysis as antigenic, was synthesised and its immunostimulatory property was analysed. When inoculated in BALB/c mice, this peptide induced high levels of SmB2LJ-specific IgG1 and IgG2a subtypes, as detected by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, dot blots were found to be positive for immune sera against potato apyrase and SmB2LJ. These results suggest that the conserved domain r175-194 from the S. mansoni SmATPDase 2 is antigenic. Western blots were performed and the anti-SmB2LJ antibody recognised in adult worm (soluble worm antigen preparation) or soluble egg antigen antigenic preparations two bands of approximately 63 and 55 kDa, molecular masses similar to those predicted for adult worm SmATPDase 2. This finding strongly suggests the expression of this same isoform in S. mansoni eggs. To assess localisation of SmATPDase 2, confocal fluorescence microscopy was performed using cryostat sections of infected mouse liver and polyclonal antiserum against SmB2LJ. Positive reactions were identified on the external surface from the miracidium in von Lichtenberg's envelope and, in the outer side of the egg-shell, showing that this soluble isoform is secreted from the S. mansoni eggs.

Evolutionary histories of expanded peptidase families in Schistosoma mansoni

Schistosoma mansoni is one of the three main causative agents of human schistosomiasis, a major health problem with a vast socio-economic impact. Recent advances in the proteomic analysis of schistosomes have revealed that peptidases are the main virulence factors involved in the pathogenesis of this disease. In this context, evolutionary studies can be applied to identify peptidase families that have been expanded in genomes over time in response to different selection pressures. Using a phylogenomic approach, we searched for expanded endopeptidase families in the S. mansoni predicted proteome with the aim of contributing to the knowledge of such enzymes as potential therapeutic targets. We found three endopeptidase families that comprise leishmanolysins (metallopeptidase M8 family), cercarial elastases (serine peptidase S1 family) and cathepsin D proteins (aspartic peptidase A1 family). Our results suggest that the Schistosoma members of these families originated from successive gene duplication events in the parasite lineage after its diversification from other metazoans. Overall, critical residues are conserved among the duplicated genes/proteins. Furthermore, each protein family displays a distinct evolutionary history. Altogether, this work provides an evolutionary view of three S. mansoni peptidase families, which allows for a deeper understanding of the genomic complexity and lineage-specific adaptations potentially related to the parasitic lifestyle.

Schistosoma mansoni polo-like kinases and their function in control of mitosis and parasite reproduction

Polo-like kinases are important regulators of cell cycle progression and mitosis. They constitute a family of conserved serine/threonine kinases which are highly related in their catalytic domains and contain polo boxes involved in protein-protein interactions and subcellular localization. In mammals, five Plks (Plk 1-5) encompass diverse roles in centrosome dynamics, spindle formation, intra S-phase and G2/M checkpoints and DNA damage response. Plk1 is a key positive regulator of mitosis and is overexpressed in various types of cancers. Plk4 is a divergent member of the Plk family, with essential functions in centriole duplication. Homozygous disruption of Plk1 or Plk4 in mice is lethal in embryos. Two Plk members SmPlk1 and SmSak, homologous to Plk1 and Plk4 respectively, are present in the parasitic platyhelminth Schistosoma mansoni. Structural and functional analyses of SmPlk1 have demonstrated its conserved function in the regulation of cell cycle G2/M transition in Xenopus oocytes. The anti-cancer drug BI 2536 (the most potent and selective Plk1 inhibitor) inhibits specifically the catalytic activity of SmPlk1 and induced profound alterations in schistosome gonads, indicating a role of SmPlk1 in parasite gametogenesis and its potential as a novel chemotherapeutic target against schistosomiasis. Functions of SmSak in cell cycle regulation and schistosome gonad development are currently investigated.

Quinases do tipo Polo ("polo-like") são importantes reguladores da progressão do ciclo celular e da mitose. Elas constituem uma família de serina/treonina quinases que são altamente relacionadas entre si no seu domínio catalítico e contêm blocos "polo" envolvidos com interações proteína-proteína e com localização subcelular. Em mamíferos, cinco Plks (Plk 1-5) englobam diversos papéis na dinâmica do centrossomo, formação do fuso, "checkpoints" dentro da fase S e da transição G2/M, e na resposta aos danos do DNA. Plk1 é um regulador positivo chave da mitose, e é superexpresso em vários tipos de câncer. Plk4 é um membro divergente da família Plk, com funções essenciais na duplicação do centríolo. Deleção homozigótica de Plk1 ou Plk4 em camundongos é letal em embriões. Dois membros da família Plk, SmPlk1 e SmSak, homólogos a Plk1 e Plk4, respectivamente, estão presentes no parasita platelmíntico Schistosoma mansoni. Análises estruturais e funcionais de SmPlk1 demonstraram uma função conservada na regulação da transição G2/M do ciclo celular em ovócitos de Xenopus. A droga anticâncer BI2536 (o inibidor mais potente e seletivo de Plk1) inibe específicamente a atividade catalítica de SmPlk1 e induz alterações profundas nas gonadas de esquistossomos, indicando um papel de SmPlk1 na gametogênese do parasita e seu potencial como um alvo terapêutico novo contra a esquistossomose. As funções de SmSak na regulação do ciclo celular e no desenvolvimento das gônadas de esquistossomos estão sendo investigadas no momento.

Characterization of the cGMP-dependent protein kinase SmcGK1 of Schistosoma mansoni

Schistosomes are trematode parasites and of worldwide medical importance for humans and animals. Growth and development of these parasites require a specific host environment, but also permanent communication processes between the two genders. Accumulating molecular evidence indicates that the responsible interactions are mediated by signal transduction processes. Conserved signaling molecules were identified, and first approaches made for their characterization. However, no representative of the conserved family of cGMP-dependent protein kinases (cGKs) has been described in this parasite yet. Within the Schistosoma mansoni genome data-set we identified cGK homologs, of which one was investigated in more detail in this study. We present the cloning of SmcGK1, whose sequence shows homology to cGKs of higher eukaryotes. SmcGK1 was found to be gender-independently transcribed in adult schistosomes. The occurrence of SmcGK1 sense and antisense transcripts suggests that the expression of this gene is controlled at the post-transcriptional level. In situ hybridization experiments demonstrated a gonad-preferential expression profile in both genders indicating a role of SmcGK1, at least during sexual development of schistosomes. Using a cGK-specific inhibitor to treat adult schistosomes in vitro finally resulted in a multifaceted phenotype including slow motion, oocyte congestion, and reduced egg production.

Esquistossomos são parasitas trematodos de importância médica em todo o mundo para o homem e os animais. O crescimento e o desenvolvimento destes parasitas requerem um ambiente específico do hospedeiro, mas também um processo de comunicação permanente entre parasitas dos dois sexos. Evidência molecular tem se acumulado e indica que as interações são mediadas por processos de transdução de sinal. Moléculas sinalizadoras conservadas foram identificadas, e as primeiras abordagens têm sido feitas para sua caracterização. Contudo, não foi ainda descrito nenhum representante da família conservada das proteína-quinases dependentes de cGMP (cGKs) neste parasita. Analisando o genoma do Schistosoma mansoni nós identificamos homólogos de cGK, dos quais um foi investigado em mais detalhe no presente estudo. Aqui apresentamos a clonagem do gene SmcGK1, cuja sequência mostra homologia com cGKs de eucariotos superiores. Smc- GK1 foi detectada como sendo transcrita de forma gêneroindependente em esquistossomos adultos. A ocorrência de transcritos de SmcGK1 senso e antisenso sugere que a expressão deste gene é controlada em nível pos-transcricional. Experimentos de hibridização in situ demonstraram uma expressão preferencial nas gônadas em ambos os gêneros, indicando um papel para SmcGK1, pelo menos durante o desenvolvimento de esquistossomos. Usando um inibidor específico de cGK para tratamento de esquistossomos adultos in vitro finalmente resultou em um fenótipo multifacetado, incluindo movimentos lentos, congestão dos oócitos, e redução da produção de ovos.

Schistosome serine protease inhibitors: parasite defense or homeostasis?

Serpins are a structurally conserved family of macromolecular inhibitors found in numerous biological systems. The completion and annotation of the genomes of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum has enabled the identification by phylogenetic analysis of two major serpin clades. S. mansoni shows a greater multiplicity of serpin genes, perhaps reflecting adaptation to infection of a human host. Putative targets of schistosome serpins can be predicted from the sequence of the reactive center loop (RCL). Schistosome serpins may play important roles in both post-translational regulation of schistosome-derived proteases, as well as parasite defense mechanisms against the action of host proteases.

Serpinas são uma família de inibidores macromoleculares estruturalmente conservados encontrados em inúmeros sistemas biológicos. O término e a anotação dos genomas de Schistosoma mansoni e de Schistosoma japonicum permitiram a identificação por análise filogenética de dois principais clados de serpinas. S. mansoni mostra uma multiplicidade maior de genes de serpinas, talvez refletindo uma adaptação à infecção de um hospedeiro humano. Alvos putativos das serpinas de esquistossomos podem ser preditos a partir da sequência do "loop" do centro reativo. Serpinas de esquistossomos podem ter importantes papeis tanto na regulação pós-traducional de proteases derivadas do esquistossoma, quanto nos mecanismos de defesa contra a ação de proteases do hospedeiro.

Oxamniquine, praziquantel and lovastatin association in the experimental Schistosomiasis mansoni

The activity of lovastatin associated with oxamniquine or praziquantel against schistosomiasis mansoni was evaluated in mice infected with Schistosoma mansoni. Forty days after infection, mice were treated with lovastatin, 400 mg/kg for five consecutive days by oral route, and on the last day of this sequence with 50 mg/kg oxamniquine or with 200 mg/kg praziquantel, both by oral route, single dose. Fifteen days later, the animals were perfused in parallel with an untreated control group. Studies were carried out in vitro, using lovastatin in culture medium containing S. mansoni worms proceeding from experimentally infected mice. In the in vivo trials, the association of lovastatin with oxamniquine or praziquantel did not show any additive action, but there were oogram changes when lovastatin was associated with oxamniquine. In vitro lovastatin was able to interrupt the maturation of S. mansoni eggs, which remained at the 1st or 2nd stages, depending on the dose used. The total number of morphologically dead eggs found in culture of worms exposed to 2 µg/ml or 4 µg/ml concentrations of lovastatin was significantly higher than the number of viable eggs. Using the probe Hoescht 33258 it was observed that 70 percent of the eggs considered morphologically viable in the treated groups (against 16 percent in the control group) were labeled, indicating that the majority of the viable eggs had membrane permeability increased due to lovastatin action.

Aspartic protease activities of schistosomes cleave mammalian hemoglobins in a host-specific manner

We examined the efficiency of digestion of hemoglobin from four mammalian species, human, cow, sheep, and horse by acidic extracts of mixed sex adults of Schistosoma japonicum and S. mansoni. Activity ascribable to aspartic protease(s) from S. japonicum and S. mansoni cleaved human hemoglobin. In addition, aspartic protease activities from S. japonicum cleaved hemoglobin from bovine, sheep, and horse blood more efficiently than did the activity from extracts of S. mansoni. These findings support the hypothesis that substrate specificity of hemoglobin-degrading proteases employed by blood feeding helminth parasites influences parasite host species range; differences in amino acid sequences in key sites of the parasite proteases interact less or more efficiently with the hemoglobins of permissive or non-permissive hosts.

Protein tyrosine kinases in Schistosoma mansoni

The identification and description of signal transduction molecules and mechanisms are essential to elucidate Schistosoma mansoni host-parasite interactions and parasite biology. This mini review focuses on recent advancements in the study of signalling molecules and transduction mechanisms in S. mansoni, drawing special attention to the recently identified and characterised protein tyrosine kinases of S. mansoni.

Characterization of the gene expression related to the process of DNA damage tolerance in Schistosoma mansoni

In the course of its complex life cycle, the parasite Schistosoma mansoni need to adapt to distinct environments, and consequently is exposed to various DNA damaging agents. The Schistosoma genome sequencing initiative has uncovered sequences from genes and transcripts related to the process of DNA damage tolerance as the enzymes UBC13, MMS2, and RAD6. In the present work, we evaluate the importance of this process in different stages of the life cycle of this parasite. The importance is evidenced by expression and phylogenetic profiles, which show the conservation of this pathway from protozoa to mammalians on evolution.

Cross-immunoreactivity between anti-potato apyrase antibodies and mammalian ATP diphosphohydrolases: potential use of the vegetal protein in experimental schistosomiasis

We have previously showed that Schistosoma mansoni ATP-diphosphohydrolase and Solanum tuberosum potato apyrase share epitopes and the vegetable protein has immunostimulatory properties. Here, it was verified the in situ cross-immunoreactivity between mice NTPDases and anti-potato apyrase antibodies produced in rabbits, using confocal microscopy. Liver samples were taken from Swiss Webster mouse 8 weeks after infection with S. mansoni cercariae, and anti-potato apyrase and TRITC-conjugated anti-rabbit IgG antibody were tested on cryostat sections. The results showed that S. mansoni egg ATP diphosphohydrolase isoforms, developed by anti-potato apyrase, are expressed in miracidial and egg structures, and not in granulomatous cells and hepatic structures (hepatocytes, bile ducts, and blood vessels). Therefore, purified potato apyrase when inoculated in rabbit generates polyclonal sera containing anti-apyrase antibodies that are capable of recognizing specifically S. mansoni ATP diphosphohydrolase epitopes, but not proteins from mammalian tissues, suggesting that autoantibodies are not induced during potato apyrase immunization. A phylogenetic tree obtained for the NTPDase family showed that potato apyrase had lower homology with mammalian NTPDases 1-4, 7, and 8. Further analysis of potato apyrase epitopes could implement their potential use in schistosomiasis experimental models.

Recombinant Schistosoma mansoni 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme-A reductase has different inhibitor kinetics compared to the mammalian host enzyme.

Previous publications have clearly demonstrated that hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A [HMG-CoA] reductase activity of Schistosoma mansoni is vital for parasite reproductive activity and that drugs which inhibit this enzyme have been found to be effective antischistosomal agents. In this report we describe the expression and purification of enzymatically active schistosome HMG-CoA reductase enzyme. The recombinant protein was tested, in parallel with the mammalian enzyme, against well-known mammalian HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors obtained from various pharmaceutical companies. We demonstrated that there were significant differences in the response of the two proteins to an array of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. The difference in the characteristics between mammalian and schistosome enzyme could be exploited for rational drug design.

Sativa seeds against Schistosoma mansoni different stages

The schistosomicidal properties of Nigella sativaseeds were tested in vitro against Schistosoma mansoni miracidia, cercariae, and adult worms. Results indicate its strong biocidal effects against all stages of the parasite and also showed an inhibitory effect on egg-laying of adult female worms. In the present work we also studied the effects of crushed seeds on some antioxidant enzymes; which have a role in protection of adult worms against host oxidant killing; as well as some enzymes of glucose metabolism; which have a crucial role in the survival of adult worms inside their hosts. The data revealed that the used drug induce an oxidative stress against adult worms which indicated by a decrease in the activities of both antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase and enzymes of glucose metabolism, hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Disturbing of such enzymes of adult worms using N. sativa seeds could in turn render the parasite vulnerable to damage by the host and may play a role in the antischistosomal potency of the used drug.

The identification and characterization of new immunogenic egg components: implications for evaluation and control of the immunopathogenic T cell response in schistosomiasis

In schistosomiasis, granuloma formation to parasite eggs signals the beginning of a chronic and potentially life-threatening disease. Granulomas are strictly mediated by CD4+ T helper (Th) cells specific for egg antigens; however, the number and identity of these T cell-sensitizing molecules are largely unknown. We have used monoclonal T cell reagents derived from egg-sensitized individuals as probes to track down, isolate and positively identify several egg antigens; this approach implicitly assures that the molecules of interest are T cell immunogens and, hence, potentially pathogenic. The best studied and most abundant egg component is the Sm-p40 antigen. Sm-p40 and its peptide 234-246 elicit a strikingly immunodominant Th-1-polarized response in C3H and CBA mice, which are H-2k strains characterized by severe egg-induced immunopathology. Two additional recently described T cell-sensitizing egg antigens are Schistosoma mansoni phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (Sm-PEPCK) and thioredoxin peroxidase-1 (Sm-TPx-1). In contrast to Sm-p40, both of these molecules induce a more balanced Th-1/Th-2 response, and are relatively stronger antigens in C57BL/6 mice, which develop smaller egg granulomas. Importantly, Sm-p40 and Sm-PEPCK have demonstrated immunogenicity in humans. The findings in the murine model introduce the important notion that egg antigens can vary significantly in immunogenicity according to the host's genetic background. A better knowledge of the principal immunogenic egg components is necessary to determine whether the immune responses to certain antigens can serve as indicators or predictors of the form and severity of clinical disease, and to ascertain whether such responses can be manipulated for the purpose of reducing pathology

Glutathione S-transferases of 28kDa as major vaccine candidates against schistosomiasis

For the development of vaccines strategies to generate efficient protection against infections such as parasitic diseases, and more precisely schistosomiasis, controlling pathology could be more relevant than controlling the infection itself. Such strategies, motivated by the need for a cost-effective complement to existing control measures, should focus on parasite molecules involved in fecundity, because in metazon parasite infections pathology is usually linked to the output of viable eggs. In numerous animal models, vaccination with glutathione S-transferases of 28kDa has been shown to generate an immune response strongly limiting the worm fecundity, in addition to the reduction of the parasite burden. Recent data on acquired immunity directed to 28GST in infected human populations, and new development to draw adapted vaccine formulations, are presented.